Psychology and life1.Psychology - scientific study of the behavior of individuals and their mental processes2.Goals of Psychology:describe behavior , explain behavior , predict behavior , control “some” behaviorDescribing Behavior:First, the psychologist must observe and accurately measure the behavior. Behavioral data includes the psychologist’s report of observations about the behavior and the conditions under which the behavior occur.The type of behavioral data collected depends on the level of analysis. The focus of observations can range from broad, general, and global aspects to minute details of the organism under study.Objectivity refers to the scientific necessity to record behavioral data as facts -- as they really exist -- not as we hope them to exist.Predicting behavior:Predicting Behavior involves statements about the likelihood of a specific behavior occurring.---Scientific prediction is based on an understanding of relationships between behaviors and the mechanisms that link those behaviors to certain predictorsControlling behavior:For many psychologists, controlling behavior is the ultimate, central goal.Controlling behavior means influencing a behavior to happen or not to happen,and influencing the nature of the behavior as it is being performed.Mind, Consciousness, and Alternate States1.Consciousness:a state of awareness of internal events and the external environment.2.The levels of awarenessNonconscious processes 非意识过程 Non-conscious processes are bodily activities that rarely impinge on consciousness,such as digestion, regulation of blood pressure, and breathing.Preconscious memories 前意识记忆 Preconscious memories are those that become accessible to consciousness only after something has called attention to them.只有在你的注意被吸引过去以后才能到达意识的记忆称为前意识记忆Unconscious most fully elaborated by Freud, refers to mental processes that cannot be conscious and contain forbidden, traumatic thoughtsUnattended information 未被注意的信息refers to stimuli that are not the focus of attention。At any given time, you are surrounded by a vast amount of stimulation.you can focus your attention only an a small part of it.3.Freudian dream analysisIn The Interpretation of Dreams, Freud made dreams a cornerstone of psychoanalysis. Dreams were “wish fulfillment” of powerful, unconscious desires that were disguised in dream form.Manifest content of a dream is the surface content.-----contain symbols that distort and disguise the dream's true meaningLatent content of a dream is the hidden content, its unconscious meaning.Dream work takes forbidden wishes and transforms them into acceptable forms that are experienced as dreams. The interpretation of dreams requires working backward from the manifest content to the latent content, to revealing the unconscious wishes expressed in the dream.Memory1.Memory:a type of information processing, is the capacity to store, encode, and retrieve information. 记忆是存储、编码和提取信息的容量。2.An Overview of Memory ProcessesEncoding, the initial processing of information that leads to representation in memory。Visual code:Mental representation of information as a pictureAcoustic code:Mental representation of information as a sequence of soundsSemantic code :Mental representation of information according to its meaningStorage 存储the retention over time of encoded information; The second stage of information processing. (存储就是把编码过的信息以一定的形式保持在人们的头脑中） Maintenance rehearsalRetrieval 提取the recovery of stored information at a later time. The third stage of information processing. (提取是指从记忆中查找已有的信息的过程）3. The Serial position effectthe first and last items in a series will be remembered better than items in the middle.The primacy effect (首因效应）suggests that the first items learned in a series will be remembered better than others.The recency effect（近因效应）suggests that the last items learned in a series will beremembered better than others.4.Interference（干扰）according to interference theory, we also forget material in short-term and long-term memory because newly learned material interferes with it. Proactive interference（前摄抑制） occurs when information acquired in the past makes it more difficult to acquire new information.Retroactive interference（后摄抑制） occurs when the acquisition of new information makes it harder to remember older information.5.Ebbinghaus Quantifies Memory 艾宾浩斯定义的记忆Ebbinghaus used nonsense syllables (not contaminated by previous learning) and rote learning (memorizing by mere repetition) to study what he thought was pure memory.Ebbinghaus learned lists of nonsense syllables to a criterion performance level, He would then distract himself for an interval by studying other lists, and then re-learn the original list.Ebbinghaus called the difference between the time to learn the list originally and thetime to relearn the list as savings.Intelligence and intelligence assessment1.Psychological assessment is the use of specified testing procedures to evaluate the abilities, behaviors, and personal qualities of people.2.Intelligence is a very general mental capability that involves the ability to reason,plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, and learn from experience.3.Mental age (MA)心理年龄—measure of an individual’s level of mental developmentChronological age 生理年龄— the number of years since birth4.Mental Retardation（智力延迟）.Must meet 3 criteria: Significantly sub-average intellectual functioning Limitations in adaptive skills (such as communication, self care, social skills, health and safety, work).Onset prior to age 18.5.Theories of intelligencePsychometric Theories of Intelligence 智力的心理测量学理论Psychometrics is the field of psychology that spelializes in mental testing in any of its facets, including personality assessment, intelligence evaluation, and aptitude measurement.Based on a statistical technique called factor analysis. The goal of factor analysis is to identify the basic psychological dimensions of the concept being investigated.Factor theory ：Charles Spearman proposed two-factor theory of intelligence consisting of General intelligence (g); broad ability Specific intelligence (s); ability in a specific areaRaymond Cattell determined general intelligence could be broken into two relatively independent components.fluid intelligence 液态智力, the ability to see complex relationships and solve problems.crystallized intelligence 晶态智力, the knowledge the individual has already acquired and the ability to access that knowledge.J. P. Guilford(吉尔福特的智力结构论) developed the structure of intellect model specifying three features of intellectual tasks:content, or type of information;product, or form in which information is presented;operation, or type of mental activity performed.Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence 斯腾伯格的智力三因素理论Robert Sternberg proposed an intelligence with three types: componential, experimental, and contextualcomponential intelligence is what we generally think of as academic ability. experimental intelligence is ability to cope with novel situations and to profit from experience. contextual intelligence is ability to enable people to adapt to the demands of their environment Gardner’s multiple intelligence and emotional intelligence 加德纳的多元智力理论与情绪智力Theory of Multiple IntelligencesHoward Gardner proposed that intelligence is comprised of different kinds of intelligences.Emotional intelligence (EQ) is related to interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligences. EQ is reflected in four abilities:to perceive, appraise, and express emotions appropriately;to use emotions to facilitate thinking;to analyze emotions and use emotional knowledge effectively;to regulate emotions to promote emotional and intellectual growthMotivation1.Motivation： is the process involved in starting, directing, and maintaining physical and psychological activities 动机是激发和维持个体进行活动，并导致该活动朝向某一目标的心理倾向或动力。2.Functions of Motivational ConceptsTo relate biology to behavior To account for behavioral variabilityTo infer private states from public actsTo assign responsibility for actionsTo explain perseverance despite adversity3.Sources of MotivationDrive 驱力Drive is defined in biological terms as internal states that arise in response to an organism’s physical needs.Tension reduction is reinforcing, but is not sufficient to explain all types of motivated behavior.Drive-reduction theory 驱力理论Drives occur as a result of environmental change and the desire for an organism to maintain homeostasis (or equilibrium) of the internal environment. Homeostasis 动态平衡 is a steady state. People are motivated to maintain a steady state.We engage in behaviors that reduce the tension. Incentive 诱因Behavior can also be motivated by incentives, external stimuli or rewards that do not relate directly to biological needs.4.A Hierarchy of NeedsMaslow posited that the individual’s basic motives formed a hierarchy of needs, with needs at each level requiring satisfaction before achieving the next level.Biological: Bottom level needs, such as hunger and thirst, require satisfaction beforeother needs can begin operation.Safety is a requirement to attend to needs for protection from danger, need for security, comfort, and freedom from fear.Attachment is the need to belong, affiliate with others, love and to be loved.Esteem is the needs to like oneself, to see oneself as competent and effective, and todo what is necessary to earn the esteem of others.Self-actualization: Individual has moved beyond basic needs in the quest for fullest development of his/her potential. Individual is selfaware, self-accepting, socially responsive, creative, spontaneous, open to novelty and challenge.Emotion Stress and health1.Emotion：A complex pattern of bodily and mental changes that includes physiological arousal, feelings, cognitive processes, visible expressions, and specific behavioral reactions made in response to a stiuation perceived as personally significant.2.Theories of emotionphysiology of emotion 情绪生理学The physiology of emotion refers to those responses that are designed to mobilize the body for action to deal with the source of the emotion.The autonomic nervous system (ANS) prepares the body for emotional responses through activation of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous symptoms:The sympathetic nervous system is more active when stimuli are mild and unpleasant.The parasympathetic nervous system is more active when stimuli are mild and pleasant.James-Lange Theory.詹姆士-兰格理论This theory holds that emotion stems from bodily feedback, in which the perception of stimulus causes autonomic arousal and other bodily actions that lead to the experience ofan emotion.情绪是我们对于身体内部所发生的某些变化的知觉 。我们因哭而悲，而不是因悲伤才啼哭。Cannon-Bard Theory.坎农-巴德理论 This theory takes a centralist focus on central nervous system (CNS) actions.There are four objections to the James- Lange Theory:Visceral 内脏 activity is irrelevant for emotional experience.ANS responses are too slow to be the source of emotions elicited in a split second.Cannon- Bard proposed that emotion requires the brain to intercede 调解 between input of stimulus and output of response.Cannon- Bard proposed that emotion-arousing stimuli have simultaneous effects, causingboth bodily arousal and the subjective experience of emotionCognitive Appraisal Theories of Emotion(Schachter and Singer)认知评估理论Schachter proposed that emotion arises due to physiological arousal and cognitive appraisal. Both are necessary for emotion to occur.Lazarus maintained that “emotional experience cannot be understood solely in terms ofwhat happens in the person or in the brain, but grows out of ongoing transactions with the environment.”Challenges to Lazarus- SchachterAwareness of physiological arousal is not a necessary condition.Experiencing strong arousal without obvious cause does not lead to a neutral, undifferentiated state.Zajonc demonstrated the possibility of having preferences without inferences, and to feel without knowing why—the mere exposure effect.The safest conclusion is that cognitive appraisal is an important, but not the only, aspect of emotional experience.3.Functions of emotionMotivation and attentionEmotions serve a motivational function by arousing the individual to take action with regard to an experienced or imagined event. Emotions direct and sustain behaviors toward specific goals.The left amygdala plays an important role in giving you heightened awareness of objects that have emotional significance. And your brain doesn’t allow events of emotional importance to escape your attention.Social Functions of EmotionEmotions serve the function of regulating social interactions.The emotions others’experience have a strong impact on your behaviour in social settingsThe emotions your experience have a strong impact on how you function in social settingsEmotional Effects on Cognitive FunctioningMood-congruent processing 情绪一致性处理 takes place when material congruent with one’s prevailing mood is more likely to be attended to, noticed, and processed at a deeper level than noncongruent material. 当人们处于良好的心境状态时，积极心境使他们倾向于用积极的眼光去知觉和解释事件；当人们处于糟糕的心境状态时，他们倾向于用消极的眼光去知觉和解释事件。Mood-dependent memory 情绪依赖性记忆 refers to recall of a previous emotional event that occurs when the individual is in the same mood as during the previous event.4.Stress is the pattern of responses an organism makes to stimulus events that disturbits equilibrium and tax or exceed its ability to cope.应激是一种反应模式，当刺激事件打破了有机体的平衡和负荷能力，或者超过了个体的能力所及，就会体现为压力。5.Acute stress refers to transient states of arousal, with typically clear onset and offset patterns.Chronic stress refers to a state of enduring arousal, in which demands placed on the organism are perceived by the organism as being greater than the inner and outer resources available for dealing with them.慢性应激是一种长期的唤醒状态，会持续很长时间，使人感到即便内在资源和外在资源加在一起，也不再能满足压力事件的要求。